By the first half of the 16th century, the clothing of the Low Countries, German states, and Scandinavia had developed in a different direction than that of England, France, and Italy, although all absorbed the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s.
Elaborate slashing was popular, especially in Germany.
Bobbin lace arose from passementerie in the mid-16th century, probably in Flanders.
This century also saw the rise of the ruff, which grew from a mere ruffle at the neckline of the shirt or chemise to immense cartwheel shapes.
At their most extravagant, ruffs required wire supports and were made of fine Italian reticella, a cutwork linen lace.
Before mechanisation, cotton was harvested manually by farmers in India and by African slaves in America.
In 2012 Uzbekistan was a major exporter of
digitizing cotton and uses manual labour during the harvest. Human rights groups claim that health care professionals and children are forced to pick cotton.
Textile preservationists should be familiar with their collections and the history and provenance of their pieces.
Chemical tests can reveal the types of dyes and mordants used, as well as any other treatments applied to the
embroidery digitizing fabric.
Such knowledge can lead to the prevention of further decay by learning which pieces need to be handled with particular care.